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This work was supported by the Australian Government through the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA) and the Australian Research Council. Responsibility for the views, information or advice expressed herein is not accepted by the Australian Government. J.P. acknowledges the funding support from Australian Nanotechnology Network (ANN) and Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research (DIISR). The research reported in this publication was supported by funding from King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST). The authors thank Xavier Pita, scientific illustrator at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), for producing Figure 1a in this paper. J.P. conceived the idea, designed the overall experiments, and led the project. J.P., T.D., H.S., and Y.W. prepared and characterized the perovskite cell devices. J.I.K. and E.U. performed the TA and TRPL measurements and data analysis. F.L. supervised the TA and TRPL measurements and analysis. W.L., X.Y., and J. P. conducted the FTIR measurements and analysis. W.L. performed the DFT calculation. T.D., H.S., and Y.W. conducted the PL imaging measurements. H.D. conducted the XRD and SEM measurements. K.W. conducted the NMR measurements and analysis. E.A. conducted the EQE measurements. J.P., J.I.K., K.J.W., K.R.C., F.L., S.D.W., and T.P.W. contributed to the results analysis and interpretation. T.P.W. and S.D.W. supervised the project. J.P. wrote the manuscript. All authors contributed to the discussion of the results and revision of the manuscript.