LAUSR

Grooming is one of the most common cooperative behaviors among several animal species. However, the tactics used to cope with uncooperative partners in grooming interactions remain unclear. Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) solicit grooming from partners through postural behaviors, but may not necessarily receive grooming. This study investigated the behavior of female Japanese macaques after they solicited but did not receive grooming. We predicted that unsuccessful solicitors would engage in grooming interactions with uncooperative partners if they were affiliated. If they were not affiliated, the solicitors would not do so and may seek grooming interactions with other grooming partners. We used a focal‐animal sampling method, targeting 17 females at Katsuyama, Okayama Prefecture, Japan. We recognized affiliative relationships by measuring close spatial association. After unsuccessful solicitation, females tended to scratch themselves, suggesting that solicitors may experience anxiety or distress when they do not receive grooming. They also tended to be proximate with affiliated partners after solicitation, regardless of whether the solicitors received grooming from their partners. In contrast, when solicitors failed to receive grooming from unaffiliated partners, their subsequent proximity was lower than when they were groomed. Moreover, unsuccessful solicitors were likely to engage in grooming interactions with affiliated partners who were uncooperative (receivers of unsuccessful solicitations). However, they were less likely to engage in grooming interactions with unaffiliated partners and instead engaged in grooming interactions with other nearby partners. These findings indicate that female Japanese macaques decide whether to engage in grooming interactions with uncooperative partners who have not groomed solicitors based on affiliative relationships and the availability of other grooming partners. It is probable that, when the cost of searching for a grooming partner is low, female Japanese macaques are likely to switch partners, potentially leading to an increase in the benefits obtained from grooming interactions.