LAUSR

Many passerines lay protoporphyrin-pigmented eggs, and the degree of spotting seems to be related to female condition and environmental characteristics. However, most studies have ignored the relationship between the male’s quality and eggshell pigmentation. Because ornaments can act as honest indicators of individual quality, spottiness could be related to the parents’ feather colouration. Using models of bird vision, we investigated whether male and female ornamentation explained variation in spotting coverage in a free-living population of blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus). We also explored the associations between other important individual characteristics (i.e. the pair’s infection status) and spotting coverage. Females that laid more pigmented eggs suffered from higher parasitaemia by the blood parasite Leucocytozoon and had smaller clutches, more saturated yellow breast feathers and reduced body mass. Male plumage colour and infection status explained a higher percentage of the variation in eggshell pigmentation than female characteristics. Males that had more saturated white cheeks and less saturated yellow breasts and were more intensely infected by the parasite Haemoproteus and less by Plasmodium attended nests with more spotted eggs. Additionally, these males were younger and more likely to father extra-pair offspring. These results, although observational, suggest that male attractiveness, male age, extra-pair paternity and parasitic infections could be important determinants of eggshell pigmentation. Males in poorer condition might have provided less food to laying females, which in turn laid more pigmented eggs and were also in poor condition. Alternatively, increased eggshell pigmentation could result from female differential allocation or breeding in low-quality territories.Significance statementBirds exhibit diverse egg colours and patterns, and these may vary in response to environmental characteristics, such as calcium availability, or female condition. The male’s characteristics may also partially determine egg appearance, although these remain understudied. In the blue tit, our results suggest that females laid more pigmented eggs when they were paired with males that cheated, were paler in their feather colour, and were more infected by parasites. These females were also in poor condition. Several hypotheses are proposed to explain the associations between male quality and the degree of spotting coverage on the eggshell. Because these males were in poorer condition, females could have been given less food and thus laid worse eggs or low-quality pairs could be breeding in low-quality territories. Alternatively, females could allocate more pigments to the eggshell depending on the male’s quality.