LAUSR

Purpose While low-dose atropine eye drops are currently widely used to inhibit myopia development in children, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Therefore, we studied possible retinal mechanisms and receptors that are potentially involved in myopia inhibition by atropine. Methods A total of 250 μg atropine were intravitreally injected into one eye of 19 chickens, while the fellow eyes received saline and served as controls. After 1 h, 1.5 h, 2 h, 3 h, and 4 h, eyes were prepared for vitreal dopamine (DA) measurements, using high-pressure liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. Twenty-four animals were kept either in bright light (8500 lx) or standard light (500 lx) after atropine injection for 1.5 h before DA was measured. In 10 chickens, the α 2A -adrenoreceptor (α 2A -ADR) agonists brimonidine and clonidine were intravitreally injected into one eye, the fellow eye served as control, and vitreal DA content was measured after 1.5 h. In 6 chickens, immunohistochemical analyses were performed 1.5 h after atropine injection. Results Vitreal DA levels increased after a single intravitreal atropine injection, with a peak difference between both eyes after 1.97 h. DA was also enhanced in fellow eyes, suggesting a systemic action of intravitreally administered atropine. Bright light and atropine (which both inhibit myopia) had additive effects on DA release. Quantitative immunolabelling showed that atropine heavily stimulated retinal activity markers ZENK and c-Fos in cells of the inner nuclear layer. Since atropine was recently found to also bind to α 2A -ADRs at doses where it can inhibit myopia, their retinal localization was studied. In amacrine cells, α 2A -ADRs were colocalized with tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), glucagon, and nitric oxide synthase, peptides known to play a role in myopia development in chickens. Intravitreal atropine injection reduced the number of neurons that were double-labelled for TH and α 2A -ADR. α 2A -ADR agonists clonidine and brimonidine (which were also found by other authors to inhibit myopia) severely reduced vitreal DA content in both injected and fellow eyes, compared to eyes of untreated chicks. Conclusions Merging our results with published data, it can be concluded that both muscarinic and α 2A -adrenergic receptors are expressed on dopaminergic neurons and both atropine and α 2A -ADR antagonists stimulate DA release whereas α 2A -ADR agonists strongly suppress its release. Stimulation of DA by atropine was enhanced by bright light. Results are in line with the hypothesis that inhibition of deprivation myopia is correlated with DA stimulation, as long as no toxicity is involved.