LAUSR

Abstract Landscapes of fear have become widely studied in the northern hemisphere, but are still largely understudied in the more complex, diverse carnivore-prey communities of Africa. Habitat changes brought about by a megaherbivore, the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), can modify the perceived landscape of fear by predation vulnerable prey species (impala Aepyceros melampus and warthog Phacochoerus africanus) in contrast with non-prey species (white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum). We hypothesized that by opening up woody vegetation, elephants may modify perceived risk at a landscape-scale, but also at a fine scale by depositing escape impediments in the form of coarse woody debris. We experimentally tested this in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, South Africa, by simulating elephant-induced habitat changes on patch scale (opening up woody vegetation) and within-patch scale (deposition of coarse woody debris) and monitoring the herbivore visitation using camera traps. We compared visitation on the edge of grazing lawns (in proximity of dense vegetation) and the centre (open, highly visible patches), either with or without coarse woody debris and with or without fresh predator scat. We found that mesoherbivore prey species showed contrasting responses, with warthog avoiding plots close to dense vegetation and plots with coarse woody debris. Impala reduced their visitation to dense vegetation patches only during risky times, at night, especially in the presence of predator scat, but did not clearly avoid plots with coarse woody debris. Our study indicates that, in African savannas, the perceived landscape of fear is a highly dynamic phenomenon varying in both space and time and being species-specific. Elephant induced habitat changes may shape landscapes of fear in complex and contrasting ways.