LAUSR

Abstract To increase the scale of restoration efforts, it is imperative to develop more cost-efficient methods. Seedling planting is the most common strategy for active restoration in the tropics, but direct seeding is increasingly being used. We estimated the costs of seed production for 50 species of forest and savanna trees in Brazil, the costs for each 1-y-old seedling of 57 species established by direct seeding, and the total costs per area of direct seeding, compared with seedling planting. We recorded the harvesting and processing effort to produce seeds our restoration research project in 2015, 2016, and 2017 in Central Brazil. The cost per 1-y-old seedling was estimated by dividing the market price of a seed by the proportion of successful establishment in the field, plus planting and maintenance costs. Establishment proportion was calculated based on several published and unpublished studies of direct seeding projects in Brazil. To estimate the cost of restoration per area we considered the operational costs and inputs to establish and maintain one hectare for one year. For comparison we used literature data for the costs of nurse-seedling planting. Seed processing is costly, but not always necessary for the success of restoration. The cost of establishing a 1-y-old seedling by direct seeding was cheaper than by nurse-seedling planting for 56 of 57 species. The cost of direct seeding per area is much lower than seedling planting, even considering a low seedling establishment rate. Since direct seeding filters the seed types that can be sowed, integrating direct seeding with sporadic seedling planting can be an efficient strategy when the probability of natural species colonization is low.