LAUSR

Abstract Based on a longitudinal sample of young Hong Kong Chinese children (N = 104; age at the first wave of assessment: M ± SD = 59.69 ± 3.65 months), this study examined visual-spatial skills, working memory, phonological short-term memory, and phonological awareness in relation to symbolic and non-symbolic numerical skills. Children were tested first in their second year in kindergarten (K2; Time 1 [T1]) and then 12 months later in their third year (K3; Time 2 [T2]). Symbolic numerical skills were assessed using verbal counting, number recognition, number comparison, and written arithmetic tasks, while non-symbolic numerical skills were assessed using dot comparison and non-symbolic calculation tasks. Results from structural equation modeling showed that visual-spatial skills significantly predicted later non-symbolic numerical skills, while phonological short-term memory predicted later symbolic numerical skills. These associations remained even after controlling for the child's age and vocabulary. The findings highlight different constellations of cognitive skills that may be required in the development of young children's symbolic and non-symbolic numerical abilities.