LAUSR

Abstract Implicit learning models suggest that speakers adapt syntactic knowledge in response to prior syntactic experience and such adaptation is sensitive to surface structures (word order) (e.g., Chang et al., 2006 , Reitter et al., 2011 ). To determine the scope of syntactic processing to which an implicit learning mechanism is applicable and its sensitivity to surface structures, we investigated cumulative priming and inverse frequency effects across different constructions in a between- language context of Chinese and English (Experiment 1) and in a within- language context of Chinese (Experiment 2). Our results showed that Chinese speakers integrated cumulative experience in Chinese into production of not only Chinese but also of English and that such adaptation was not sensitive to surface word order at least in a between- language context. These findings suggest that an implicit learning mechanism is a universal, language-unspecific processing mechanism that is not sensitive to surface syntactic structures. We discuss these findings in terms of theories of structural priming and bilingual syntactic processing and consider the need for a model that accommodates our findings.