LAUSR

policies that were often only constrained by the threat of retaliatory treatment of their own citizens. The book provides an excellent overview of the developments in different countries, including the often-neglected cases of the Ottoman Empire and Japan. It emphasises the global dimension of the problem and provides the reader with a comprehensive overview of rather diverse and complex legal debates and policy decisions. While some belligerents, such as Japan, only had to deal with relatively small numbers of enemy aliens and other detainees, most countries in Europe were faced with tens of thousands of enemy aliens. After an initial phase of relative restraint, most powers resorted to repressive policies, including large-scale internment and deportations. This was also reflected in different pieces of wartime legislation that, for instance, stripped citizenship and legal protections from naturalised subjects. Similarly, in multi-ethnic empires, allegedly “unreliable” minorities, such as Italian-speakers in Austria-Hungary, Alsatians in the German Empire, and Ruthenians in the Russian Empire, were de facto treated like enemy aliens. As the book highlights, notions of citizenship were deeply entwined with perceived political loyalties and ethnicity. The final part of the book highlights the various legacies of the developments during the war. Even after the fighting had ended, enemy aliens were subject to special measures, including their forced removal from what many considered to be their home. Caglioti highlights that for many civilian detainees the war failed to end in 1918. She demonstrates that many of the wartime measures against enemy aliens ultimately had a lasting impact on national citizenship laws but also more specific conventions in international law. War and Citizenship offers a comprehensive overview of how international law and national policies towards enemy aliens developed during the “long” nineteenth century and the First World War. It analyses in great depth how international discussions about the treatment of enemy civilians and enemy aliens also influenced concepts of national belonging and citizenship. There is perhaps one point of criticism about this book: While the political and intellectual side of these developments is covered in detail, we learn comparatively little about what this meant for those who were labelled “enemy aliens” and how they experienced exclusion, deportations, and internment. Overall, however, Caglioti’s book is an indispensable resource for scholars and students of the history of international law and the treatment of civilians in wartime.