LAUSR

Anderson et al. (2018) estimate the gap between the number of incident cases of schizophrenia aged 16–50 in Ontario, Canada in 1997–2015, and the number who were enrolled into Early Psychosis Intervention (EPI) services. Their analysis is a direct comparison between administrative records and the standard method for estimating the treated incidence. The standard method (known as the ‘first-contact design’) involves screening subjects for signs of psychosis when they present for psychiatric treatment. Subjects screened positive then undergo standardized diagnostic procedures to establish the criteria for schizophrenia. But studies based on administrative records have suggested that two out of three cases may be missed this way (Hogerzeil et al., 2014; Pedersen et al., 2014; Jongsma et al., 2019). Anderson et al. (2018) also found that two out of three cases of schizophrenia had remained unknown to EPI services. Not all cases met EPI-services’ inclusion criteria, but still a substantial number of true cases of schizophrenia had been missed. In their discussion, Anderson et al. (2018) focused on the issue of incomplete coverage of services, but this is only one of several design aspects that matter. We propose to distinguish three design aspects where complete case finding can go wrong: coverage of services, time frame of the diagnosis, and accuracy of the diagnosis. We believe that these distinctions can help to understand the fiveto ten-fold variation in incidence between populations, which is commonly reported but only partially explained (Mcgrath et al., 2004; Jongsma et al., 2018, 2019). (x) Coverage of services where cases can be detected. These may range from (1) very specialized services such as EPI services, emergency or inpatient services, extending to (2) general psychiatric or addiction services, and further to (3) primary care or somatic medical care or ultimately to (4) the general population. ( y) Time frame of the diagnosis, the interval allowed between the first contact with a service and the moment a diagnosis can be made. It may range from (1) case ascertainment at firstcontact only, extending to (2) later stages of treatment, e.g. subjects presenting initially with another diagnosis, ultimately extending to a (3) life-time follow-up. (z) Accuracy of the diagnosis, ranging from diagnosis based on (1) research diagnostic procedures, extending to (2) clinical criteria diagnoses (e.g. DSM-5 or ICD-10) and (3) nonstandardized diagnostic procedures. This can be illustrated in 3D, where design choices along the {x y z} axes determine a box, the volume of which represents the incidence estimate. Figure 1 illustrates how the first contact design (solid box; i.e. typically measured as first contacts at specialized services, using research diagnoses) results in a lower incidence compared to cumulative records (dotted box; i.e. typically measured at all psychiatric services, using clinical diagnoses over much longer timespans). Case-register studies from the 1950s to the 1970s typically focused on inpatient hospital services, with long time frames and non-standardized diagnoses. The first-contact studies of the 1990s and later focused on a wider coverage of services and better diagnostic accuracy, while restricting the timeframe (Jablensky et al., 1992). That approach has high specificity but low sensitivity: many subjects with an ultimate diagnosis of schizophrenia will be missed because they do not meet criteria for the disorder when they first seek treatment (Rietdijk et al., 2011; Hogerzeil et al., 2014). Longer time frames became possible with (a) the wide adoption DSM or ICD based clinical diagnoses and (b) well maintained administrative records in (c) institutions serving all psychiatric needs of well-defined populations. Such databases can now be used to reconstruct diagnostic histories or treatment pathways through services, up to the first diagnosis of schizophrenia, capturing new onsets along pathways that cannot be covered with the standard approach. This new approach is more sensitive, although it might come at the expense of some diagnostic specificity. The study by Anderson et al. (2018) is the second to compare first-contact and cumulative methods directly. Their study can be understood as a replication of our finding (Hogerzeil et al., 2014) that in administrative data the incidence of treated schizophrenia is twoto threefold higher than detected using the first-contact design. Now replicated, this finding has obvious