LAUSR

Background Harsh parenting in early childhood is related to offspring's adverse behavioral outcomes. Due to the scarcity of longitudinal neuroimaging data, few studies have explored the neurobiological underpinnings of this association, focusing on within-person variability. This study examined the temporal associations among harsh parenting, later behavioral problems, and the developmental trajectories of amygdala volume and amygdala resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) profiles, using longitudinal neuroimaging data. Methods The study was embedded in the Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) cohort. T1-weighted (296 children, 642 scans) and resting-state functional scans (256 children, 509 scans) were collected at ages 4.5, 6, 7.5, and 10.5 years. Amygdala volume and RSFC between the amygdala and six brain regions that have leading roles in emotional regulation were extracted. Harsh parenting at 4.5 years and child behavioral problems at 10.5 years were assessed via parent-report questionnaires. Linear regression and linear mixed models were applied. Results Harsh parenting was associated with more severe externalizing problems in girls (β = 0.24, 95% CI 0.08–0.40) but not boys (pint = 0.07). In the overall sample, harsh parenting was associated with the developmental trajectories of amygdala-ACC, amygdala-OFC, and amygdala-DLPFC RSFC. In addition, the developmental trajectory of amygdala-ACC RSFC mediated the harsh parenting–externalizing problems association in girls (indirect effect = 0.06, 95% CI 0.01–0.14). Conclusions Harsh parenting in early childhood was associated with amygdala neurocircuitry development and behavioral problems. The developmental trajectory of amygdala-ACC RSFC is a potential neural mechanism linking harsh parenting and externalizing problems in girls.