LAUSR

Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) are soft, electrically powered actuators that have no discrete moving parts, yet can exhibit large strains (10%–50%) and moderate stress (∼100 kPa). This Tutorial describes the physical basis underlying the operation of DEA's, starting with a simple linear analysis, followed by nonlinear Newtonian and energy approaches necessary to describe large strain characteristics of actuators. These lead to theoretical limits on actuation strains and useful non-dimensional parameters, such as the normalized electric breakdown field. The analyses guide the selection of elastomer materials and compliant electrodes for DEAs. As DEAs operate at high electric fields, this Tutorial describes some of the factors affecting the Weibull distribution of dielectric breakdown, geometrical effects, distinguishing between permanent and “soft” breakdown, as well as “self-clearing” and its relation to proof testing to increase device reliability. New evidence for molecular alignment under an electric field is also presented. In the discussion of compliant electrodes, the rationale for carbon nanotube (CNT) electrodes is presented based on their compliance and ability to maintain their percolative conductivity even when stretched. A procedure for making complaint CNT electrodes is included for those who wish to fabricate their own. Percolative electrodes inevitably give rise to only partial surface coverage and the consequences on actuator performance are introduced. Developments in actuator geometry, including recent 3D printing, are described. The physical basis of versatile and reconfigurable shape-changing actuators, together with their analysis, is presented and illustrated with examples. Finally, prospects for achieving even higher performance DEAs will be discussed.