LAUSR

As the regulatory environment becomes progressively receptive toward utilizing real-world evidence, a spectrum of real-world data incorporation techniques in trial conduct and analysis has seen increasing interest and adoption in different stages of drug development. Of particular interest is leveraging external control data to augment the control arm in a concurrent randomized controlled trial, where patients are enrolled in both investigational treatment arm and the control arm. Yet despite the emerging literature in external data borrowing in a hybrid trial setting, very little discussion focuses on delineating what should be matched and what is actually being estimated, especially when a variety of matching schemes can be considered. In general, external control can be matched in four different ways: (1) matching with the intersection between investigational treatment and concurrent control, (2) matching with the union of concurrent investigational treatment and concurrent control, (3) matching with concurrent control alone, and (4) matching with investigational treatment alone. In this article, the formulation of estimands for different matching schemes are detailed to describe what these matching methods facilitate to answer. Simulation studies are also conducted to evaluate the performance characteristics under different matching schemes, estimation methods, effect size assumptions, and missingness of confounders.