LAUSR

ABSTRACT Background From a sports perspective, pedagogical researchers have suggested questioning is an effective instructional tool and pedagogical strategy for developing critical thinking, problem-solving and decision-making skills. Questions enable coaches to contextualise athlete learning by encouraging and guiding them to identify and explore solutions to game-based problems. While previous investigations have explored the frequency of questions and provided some understanding of the interactions within a coaching session, there is still limited empirical knowledge related to the structure and profile of coach questioning strategies. Purpose This study aims to explore how youth soccer coaches, implementing the FFA National Curriculum, have used questioning techniques within specific coaching contexts/activities to promote athlete learning. Method Australian youth soccer coaches (i.e. U12 – U16; n = 19) were filmed during regular training sessions. A questioning profile coding system was developed and used to provide a detailed profile of the types of questions asked by the coaches in different coaching situations. The frequency of each coded event (i.e. type, context, who, what, knowledge, and activity) was recorded. Data Analysis Descriptive statistics (mean ± standard error) were used to describe all coded information. Association rule models were generated to determine the extent to which a questioning profile descriptor (i.e. Question Type, Knowledge, Context, Who, What) occurred in the presence of another. Results Coaches asked on average 71 questions per session (0.88 questions per minute), with slightly greater use of convergent (i.e. closed) questions (52.2%) than divergent (i.e. open) questions (47.8%). Coaches use convergent questions that are instructional and promote lower order thinking. In contrast, divergent questions are generally related to a game tactic or principle and are asked when the team has stopped an activity. The rule models indicated there is a general trend when considering the structure and profile of the type of question (i.e. convergent; divergent) asked in the different training session activity types. During drills and small-sided games, coaches asked convergent questions to the team, which were instructional in nature and required lower level knowledge. For large games, the question was more targeted to the individual while the activity was on-going, but still required lower level knowledge. Divergent questions generally related to game tactics although only 7% of these questions asked players to problem solve. Conclusion The results of the current study indicate that coaches are posing more questions within a coaching session, compared to previous studies, possibly reflecting the emphasis placed on questioning as an athlete learning strategy within the FFA National Curriculum. Association rule models provided greater insights into the distinct ‘styles’ or profiles typically implemented by coaches during specific types of activity. From a learning perspective, coaches should consider the players needs and wants when determining which type of question best suits the situation and be prepared to move between types of questions depending on player responses. Future research should consider the perspectives of coaches and athletes to determine why questions were asked, and how effective they were in reaching their intended purposes.