LAUSR

We present a compendium of generalized expressions for the low-frequency voltage gain and terminal impedances of each of the three fundamental bipolar-amplifier topologies (i.e., common emitter, common base, and common collector). Unlike the formulas that students typically learn and designers typically use, the equations presented in this tutorial assume the most general set of conditions: finite output resistance and base-collector current gain, a load resistor at each non-input terminal of the transistor, and a “feedback” resistor between the base and collector terminals. Although perhaps algebraically complex at first glance, emphasis is placed on mathematical elegance and ease of use—expressions are formulated in terms of sub-terms that capture important aspects of the circuit’s behavior. Similarities in the mathematical structure of the results reveal a deeper conceptual connection between different amplifier topologies and, ultimately, a reciprocity relationship between the base and emitter terminals. A method for incorporating the degeneration resistor into “effective” versions of the circuit’s other parameters is demonstrated. Familiar approximate expressions are subsumed as special cases. Tables consolidating the expressions in an organized fashion are provided. Companion results for metal-oxide–semiconductor (MOS) single-transistor amplifiers are also included.