LAUSR

The process of autophagy is conserved among all eukaryotes from yeast to humans and is mainly responsible for bulk degradation of cellular contents and nutrient recycling during starvation. Autophagy has been suggested to play a role in the pathogenesis of the opportunistic human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans, potentially through a contribution to the export of virulence factors. ABSTRACT The process of autophagy is conserved among all eukaryotes from yeast to humans and is mainly responsible for bulk degradation of cellular contents and nutrient recycling during starvation. Autophagy has been suggested to play a role in the pathogenesis of the opportunistic human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans, potentially through a contribution to the export of virulence factors. In this study, we showed that deletion of each of the ATG1, ATG7, ATG8, and ATG9 genes in C. neoformans leads to autophagy-related phenotypes, including impaired amino acid homeostasis under nitrogen starvation. In addition, the atgΔ mutants were hypersensitive to inhibition of the ubiquitin-proteasome system, a finding consistent with a role in amino acid homeostasis. Although each atgΔ mutant was not markedly impaired in virulence factor production in vitro, we found that all four ATG genes contribute to C. neoformans virulence in a murine inhalation model of cryptococcosis. Interestingly, these mutants displayed significant differences in their ability to promote disease development. A more detailed investigation of virulence for the atg1Δ and atg8Δ mutants revealed that both strains stimulated an exaggerated host immune response, which, in turn, contributed to disease severity. Overall, our results suggest that different ATG genes are involved in nonautophagic functions and contribute to C. neoformans virulence beyond their core functions in autophagy.