LAUSR

This study provides the first quantitative assessment of observed long-term changes in summer-season timing and length in the Southern Hemisphere (SH) and its subregions over the past 60 years, enabling a global completeness by complementing such characteristics previously reported for the Northern Hemisphere (NH). Using an objective algorithm that is based on temperature indices, relative measures of summer onset, withdrawal, and duration are determined at each land location over the period 1953–2012. Significant widespread summer-season lengthening, due to earlier onset and delayed withdrawal, has occurred across the SH, a longer period for extreme heat-wave events and wildfires to potentially occur. The asymmetric magnitude (onset vs withdrawal) in summer-season lengthening is slightly less over the SH than over the NH. Contributions of anthropogenic and natural factors to the observed trends in summer-season characteristics were investigated using phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) multimodel simulations integrated with observed external forcings [anthropogenic plus natural (ALL)], greenhouse gas forcing only (GHG), and natural forcing only [solar and volcanic activities (NAT)]. Overall, consistent with the NH, increased greenhouse gases were the main cause of observed changes in the SH, with negligible contribution from other external forcings. ALL and GHG simulations also reproduced a slight tendency for earlier summer onset to contribute more to summer lengthening. Proportions of observed regional trends in summer-season indices attributable to trends in long-term internal variability in the SH, namely, the interdecadal Pacific oscillation (IPO) and southern annular mode (SAM), suggests such variability can only explain up to ~12%, supporting the dominant role of greenhouse gas forcing.