LAUSR

Abstract Male and female copulatory organs figure prominently in nematode taxonomy, but the associated musculature remains insufficiently explored. The aim of this study was therefore to further our knowledge of the musculature of the vulva and male copulatory organs in nematodes by using phalloidin staining and confocal microscopy to examine two nematode species, Bursaphelenchus mucronatus and Chiloplacus sp. The musculature of the round vulva in Chiloplacus sp. comprises three pairs of radial vulval dilators and another pair of dilators of the anterior inner vulval plate. This arrangement is similar to that of the Rhabditida, but in Chiloplacus the anterior pair appears to have been transformed into the vulval plate muscles. The musculature of the slit-like vulva in B. mucronatus includes dilators of the vulval lips and external vulval flap, constrictors of the vulval slit and posterior transverse muscle bands. The opposing pairs of vulval dilators show quadrilateral symmetry as observed in the Rhabditida, but the constrictors running along the rim of the vulva have no counterparts in other species. The musculature of the male copulatory organ in Chiloplacus sp. comprises two pairs of spicule protractors and retractors and three pairs of gubernacular muscles. In B. mucronatus, as in the other Aphelenchoididae, the gubernaculum is absent and there is one pair of spicule protractors and two pairs of muscles inserted on the saddle (angular bend) of the spicules. The arrangement of the spicule saddle muscles resembles those of the gubernaculum, which may indicate that in this family the gubernaculum has become fused to the spicules. The literature review of muscles of nematode copulatory organs are given in a table for 15 muscle groups; it can be used for phylogenetic reconstruction and classification of the order Rhabditida.