LAUSR

In the current study, a new hybrid machine learning (ML)-based model was developed by integrating a convolution neural network (CNN) with a random forest (RF) to forecast pesticide use on golf courses in Québec, Canada. Three main groups of independent variables were used to estimate pesticide use on golf courses, expressed as actual active ingredient rate (AAIR): (i) coordinates (i.e., longitude and latitude of the golf course), (ii) characteristics of the golf courses (i.e., pesticide type and the number of holes), and (iii) meteorological variables (i.e., total precipitation, P, and average temperature, T). The meteorological variables were collected from the Google Earth Engine by developing a JavaScript-based Code. On the basis of the different periods of total precipitation and average temperature, four different scenarios were defined. A data bank with more than 40,000 samples was used to calibrate and validate the developed model such that 70% of all samples were randomly selected to calibrate the model, while the remainder of the samples (i.e., 30%) that did not have any role in calibration were employed to validate the model’s generalizability. A comparison of different scenarios indicated that the model that considered the longitude and latitude of the golf course, pesticide type, and the number of holes in golf courses as well as total precipitation and average temperature from May to November as inputs (R = 0.997; NSE = 0.997; RMSE = 0.046; MAE = 0.026; NRMSE = 0.454; and PBIAS (%) = −0.443) outperformed the other models. Moreover, the sensitivity analysis result indicated that the total precipitation was the most critical variable in AAIR forecasting, while the average temperature, pesticide types, and the number of holes were ranked second to fourth, respectively.