LAUSR

Phenomenological constitutive models with internal variables have been applied for a wide range of material behavior. The developed models can be classified as related to the single internal variable formalism based on the thermodynamic approach by Coleman and Gurtin. The extension of this theory to so-called dual internal variables opens up new avenues for the constitutive modeling of macroscopic material behavior. This paper reveals the distinction between constitutive modeling with single and dual internal variables using examples of heat conduction in rigid solids, linear thermoelasticity, and viscous fluids. A thermodynamically consistent framework for treating internal variables with as little a priori knowledge as possible is presented. This framework is based on the exploitation of the Clausius–Duhem inequality. Since the considered internal variables are “observable but not controllable”, only the Onsagerian procedure with the use of the extra entropy flux is appropriate for the derivation of evolution equations for internal variables. The key distinctions between single and dual internal variables are that the evolution equations are parabolic in the case of a single internal variable and hyperbolic if dual internal variables are employed.