LAUSR

We used mitochondrial sequences and nuclear microsatellites to investigate population structure of gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) and the evolutionary origins of the endemic island fox (Urocyon littoralis), which first appeared in the northern Channel Islands <13,000 years ago and in the southern Channel Islands <6000 years ago. It is unclear whether island foxes evolved directly from mainland gray foxes transported to the islands one or more times or from a now-extinct mainland population, already diverged from the gray fox. Our 345 mitochondrial sequences, combined with previous data, confirmed island foxes to be monophyletic, tracing to a most recent common ancestor approximately 85,000 years ago. Our rooted nuclear DNA tree additionally indicated genome-wide monophyly of island foxes relative to western gray foxes, although we detected admixture in northern island foxes from adjacent mainland gray foxes, consistent with some historical gene flow. Southern California gray foxes also bore a genetic signature of admixture and connectivity to a desert population, consistent with partial replacement by a late-Holocene range expansion. Using our outgroup analysis to root previous nuclear sequence-based trees indicated reciprocal monophyly of northern versus southern island foxes. Results were most consistent with island fox origins through multiple introductions from a now-extirpated mainland population.